This is guile.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.3 from guile.texi.

INFO-DIR-SECTION The Algorithmic Language Scheme
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Guile Reference: (guile).     The Guile reference manual.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   Guile Reference Manual Copyright (C) 1996 Free Software Foundation
Copyright (C) 1997 Free Software Foundation
Copyright (C) 2000 Free Software Foundation
Copyright (C) 2001 Free Software Foundation
Copyright (C) 2002 Free Software Foundation

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that
the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a
translation approved by the Free Software Foundation.


File: guile.info,  Node: Available Functionality,  Next: Basic Constraints,  Up: Programming Options

What Functionality is Already Available?
----------------------------------------

   Suppose, for the sake of argument, that you would prefer to write
your whole application in Scheme.  Then the API available to you
consists of:

   * standard Scheme

   * plus the extensions to standard Scheme provided by Guile in its
     core distribution

   * plus any additional functionality that you or others have packaged
     so that it can be loaded as a Guile Scheme module.

   A module in the last category can either be a pure Scheme module --
in other words a collection of utility procedures coded in Scheme -- or
a module that provides a Scheme interface to an extension library coded
in C -- in other words a nice package where someone else has done the
work of wrapping up some useful C code for you.  The set of available
modules is growing quickly and already includes such useful examples as
`(gtk gtk)', which makes Gtk+ drawing functions available in Scheme,
and `(database postgres)', which provides SQL access to a Postgres
database.

   Given the growing collection of pre-existing modules, it is quite
feasible that your application could be implemented by combining a
selection of these modules together with new application code written in
Scheme.

   If this approach is not enough, because the functionality that your
application needs is not already available in this form, and it is
impossible to write the new functionality in Scheme, you will need to
write some C code.  If the required function is already available in C
(e.g. in a library), all you need is a little glue to connect it to the
world of Guile.  If not, you need both to write the basic code and to
plumb it into Guile.

   In either case, two general considerations are important.  Firstly,
what is the interface by which the functionality is presented to the
Scheme world?  Does the interface consist only of function calls (for
example, a simple drawing interface), or does it need to include
"objects" of some kind that can be passed between C and Scheme and
manipulated by both worlds.  Secondly, how does the lifetime and memory
management of objects in the C code relate to the garbage collection
governed approach of Scheme objects?  In the case where the basic C
code is not already written, most of the difficulties of memory
management can be avoided by using Guile's C interface features from
the start.

   For the full documentation on writing C code for Guile and connecting
existing C code to the Guile world, see REFFIXME.


File: guile.info,  Node: Basic Constraints,  Next: Style Choices,  Prev: Available Functionality,  Up: Programming Options

Functional and Performance Constraints
--------------------------------------


File: guile.info,  Node: Style Choices,  Next: Program Control,  Prev: Basic Constraints,  Up: Programming Options

Your Preferred Programming Style
--------------------------------


File: guile.info,  Node: Program Control,  Prev: Style Choices,  Up: Programming Options

What Controls Program Execution?
--------------------------------


File: guile.info,  Node: User Programming,  Prev: Programming Options,  Up: Programming Overview

How About Application Users?
============================

   So far we have considered what Guile programming means for an
application developer.  But what if you are instead _using_ an existing
Guile-based application, and want to know what your options are for
programming and extending this application?

   The answer to this question varies from one application to another,
because the options available depend inevitably on whether the
application developer has provided any hooks for you to hang your own
code on and, if there are such hooks, what they allow you to do.(1)
For example...

   * If the application permits you to load and execute any Guile code,
     the world is your oyster.  You can extend the application in any
     way that you choose.

   * A more cautious application might allow you to load and execute
     Guile code, but only in a "safe" environment, where the interface
     available is restricted by the application from the standard Guile
     API.

   * Or a really fearful application might not provide a hook to really
     execute user code at all, but just use Scheme syntax as a
     convenient way for users to specify application data or
     configuration options.

   In the last two cases, what you can do is, by definition, restricted
by the application, and you should refer to the application's own
manual to find out your options.

   The most well known example of the first case is Emacs, with its
extension language Emacs Lisp: as well as being a text editor, Emacs
supports the loading and execution of arbitrary Emacs Lisp code.  The
result of such openness has been dramatic: Emacs now benefits from
user-contributed Emacs Lisp libraries that extend the basic editing
function to do everything from reading news to psychoanalysis and
playing adventure games.  The only limitation is that extensions are
restricted to the functionality provided by Emacs's built-in set of
primitive operations.  For example, you can interact and display data by
manipulating the contents of an Emacs buffer, but you can't pop-up and
draw a window with a layout that is totally different to the Emacs
standard.

   This situation with a Guile application that supports the loading of
arbitrary user code is similar, except perhaps even more so, because
Guile also supports the loading of extension libraries written in C.
This last point enables user code to add new primitive operations to
Guile, and so to bypass the limitation present in Emacs Lisp.

   At this point, the distinction between an application developer and
an application user becomes rather blurred.  Instead of seeing yourself
as a user extending an application, you could equally well say that you
are developing a new application of your own using some of the primitive
functionality provided by the original application.  As such, all the
discussions of the preceding sections of this chapter are relevant to
how you can proceed with developing your extension.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Of course, in the world of free software, you always have the
freedom to modify the application's source code to your own
requirements.  Here we are concerned with the extension options that the
application has provided for without your needing to modify its source
code.


File: guile.info,  Node: Data Representation,  Next: GH,  Prev: Programming Overview,  Up: Top

Data Representation in Guile
****************************

   *by Jim Blandy*

   [Due to the rather non-orthogonal and performance-oriented nature of
the SCM interface, you need to understand SCM internals *before* you
can use the SCM API.  That's why this chapter comes first.]

   [NOTE: this is Jim Blandy's essay almost entirely unmodified.  It
has to be adapted to fit this manual smoothly.]

   In order to make sense of Guile's SCM_ functions, or read libguile's
source code, it's essential to have a good grasp of how Guile actually
represents Scheme values.  Otherwise, a lot of the code, and the
conventions it follows, won't make very much sense.  This essay is meant
to provide the background necessary to read and write C code that
manipulates Scheme values in a way that is compatible with libguile.

   We assume you know both C and Scheme, but we do not assume you are
familiar with Guile's implementation.

* Menu:

* Data Representation in Scheme::       Why things aren't just totally
                                        straightforward, in general terms.
* How Guile does it::                   How to write C code that manipulates
                                        Guile values, with an explanation
                                        of Guile's garbage collector.
* Defining New Types (Smobs)::          How to extend Guile with your own
                                        application-specific datatypes.


File: guile.info,  Node: Data Representation in Scheme,  Next: How Guile does it,  Up: Data Representation

Data Representation in Scheme
=============================

   Scheme is a latently-typed language; this means that the system
cannot, in general, determine the type of a given expression at compile
time.  Types only become apparent at run time.  Variables do not have
fixed types; a variable may hold a pair at one point, an integer at the
next, and a thousand-element vector later.  Instead, values, not
variables, have fixed types.

   In order to implement standard Scheme functions like `pair?' and
`string?' and provide garbage collection, the representation of every
value must contain enough information to accurately determine its type
at run time.  Often, Scheme systems also use this information to
determine whether a program has attempted to apply an operation to an
inappropriately typed value (such as taking the `car' of a string).

   Because variables, pairs, and vectors may hold values of any type,
Scheme implementations use a uniform representation for values -- a
single type large enough to hold either a complete value or a pointer
to a complete value, along with the necessary typing information.

   The following sections will present a simple typing system, and then
make some refinements to correct its major weaknesses.  However, this is
not a description of the system Guile actually uses.  It is only an
illustration of the issues Guile's system must address.  We provide all
the information one needs to work with Guile's data in *Note How Guile
does it::.

* Menu:

* A Simple Representation::
* Faster Integers::
* Cheaper Pairs::
* Guile Is Hairier::


File: guile.info,  Node: A Simple Representation,  Next: Faster Integers,  Up: Data Representation in Scheme

A Simple Representation
-----------------------

   The simplest way to meet the above requirements in C would be to
represent each value as a pointer to a structure containing a type
indicator, followed by a union carrying the real value.  Assuming that
`SCM' is the name of our universal type, we can write:

     enum type { integer, pair, string, vector, ... };
     
     typedef struct value *SCM;
     
     struct value {
       enum type type;
       union {
         int integer;
         struct { SCM car, cdr; } pair;
         struct { int length; char *elts; } string;
         struct { int length; SCM  *elts; } vector;
         ...
       } value;
     };
   with the ellipses replaced with code for the remaining Scheme types.

   This representation is sufficient to implement all of Scheme's
semantics.  If X is an `SCM' value:
   *   To test if X is an integer, we can write `X->type == integer'.

   *   To find its value, we can write `X->value.integer'.

   *   To test if X is a vector, we can write `X->type == vector'.

   *   If we know X is a vector, we can write
     `X->value.vector.elts[0]' to refer to its first element.

   *   If we know X is a pair, we can write   `X->value.pair.car' to
     extract its car.


File: guile.info,  Node: Faster Integers,  Next: Cheaper Pairs,  Prev: A Simple Representation,  Up: Data Representation in Scheme

Faster Integers
---------------

   Unfortunately, the above representation has a serious disadvantage.
In order to return an integer, an expression must allocate a `struct
value', initialize it to represent that integer, and return a pointer to
it.  Furthermore, fetching an integer's value requires a memory
reference, which is much slower than a register reference on most
processors.  Since integers are extremely common, this representation is
too costly, in both time and space.  Integers should be very cheap to
create and manipulate.

   One possible solution comes from the observation that, on many
architectures, structures must be aligned on a four-byte boundary.
(Whether or not the machine actually requires it, we can write our own
allocator for `struct value' objects that assures this is true.)  In
this case, the lower two bits of the structure's address are known to
be zero.

   This gives us the room we need to provide an improved representation
for integers.  We make the following rules:
   * If the lower two bits of an `SCM' value are zero, then the SCM
     value is a pointer to a `struct value', and everything proceeds as
     before.

   * Otherwise, the `SCM' value represents an integer, whose value
     appears in its upper bits.

   Here is C code implementing this convention:
     enum type { pair, string, vector, ... };
     
     typedef struct value *SCM;
     
     struct value {
       enum type type;
       union {
         struct { SCM car, cdr; } pair;
         struct { int length; char *elts; } string;
         struct { int length; SCM  *elts; } vector;
         ...
       } value;
     };
     
     #define POINTER_P(x) (((int) (x) & 3) == 0)
     #define INTEGER_P(x) (! POINTER_P (x))
     
     #define GET_INTEGER(x)  ((int) (x) >> 2)
     #define MAKE_INTEGER(x) ((SCM) (((x) << 2) | 1))

   Notice that `integer' no longer appears as an element of `enum
type', and the union has lost its `integer' member.  Instead, we use
the `POINTER_P' and `INTEGER_P' macros to make a coarse classification
of values into integers and non-integers, and do further type testing
as before.

   Here's how we would answer the questions posed above (again, assume
X is an `SCM' value):
   *   To test if X is an integer, we can write `INTEGER_P (X)'.

   *   To find its value, we can write `GET_INTEGER (X)'.

   *   To test if X is a vector, we can write:
            `POINTER_P (X) && X->type == vector'
       Given the new representation, we must make sure X is truly a
     pointer before we dereference it to determine its complete type.

   *   If we know X is a vector, we can write
     `X->value.vector.elts[0]' to refer to its first element, as
     before.

   *   If we know X is a pair, we can write   `X->value.pair.car' to
     extract its car, just as before.

   This representation allows us to operate more efficiently on integers
than the first.  For example, if X and Y are known to be integers, we
can compute their sum as follows:
     MAKE_INTEGER (GET_INTEGER (X) + GET_INTEGER (Y))
   Now, integer math requires no allocation or memory references.  Most
real Scheme systems actually use an even more efficient representation,
but this essay isn't about bit-twiddling.  (Hint: what if pointers had
`01' in their least significant bits, and integers had `00'?)


File: guile.info,  Node: Cheaper Pairs,  Next: Guile Is Hairier,  Prev: Faster Integers,  Up: Data Representation in Scheme

Cheaper Pairs
-------------

   However, there is yet another issue to confront.  Most Scheme heaps
contain more pairs than any other type of object; Jonathan Rees says
that pairs occupy 45% of the heap in his Scheme implementation, Scheme
48.  However, our representation above spends three `SCM'-sized words
per pair -- one for the type, and two for the CAR and CDR.  Is there
any way to represent pairs using only two words?

   Let us refine the convention we established earlier.  Let us assert
that:
   *   If the bottom two bits of an `SCM' value are `#b00', then   it
     is a pointer, as before.

   *   If the bottom two bits are `#b01', then the upper bits are an
     integer.  This is a bit more restrictive than before.

   *   If the bottom two bits are `#b10', then the value, with the
     bottom   two bits masked out, is the address of a pair.

   Here is the new C code:
     enum type { string, vector, ... };
     
     typedef struct value *SCM;
     
     struct value {
       enum type type;
       union {
         struct { int length; char *elts; } string;
         struct { int length; SCM  *elts; } vector;
         ...
       } value;
     };
     
     struct pair {
       SCM car, cdr;
     };
     
     #define POINTER_P(x) (((int) (x) & 3) == 0)
     
     #define INTEGER_P(x)  (((int) (x) & 3) == 1)
     #define GET_INTEGER(x)  ((int) (x) >> 2)
     #define MAKE_INTEGER(x) ((SCM) (((x) << 2) | 1))
     
     #define PAIR_P(x) (((int) (x) & 3) == 2)
     #define GET_PAIR(x) ((struct pair *) ((int) (x) & ~3))

   Notice that `enum type' and `struct value' now only contain
provisions for vectors and strings; both integers and pairs have become
special cases.  The code above also assumes that an `int' is large
enough to hold a pointer, which isn't generally true.

   Our list of examples is now as follows:
   *   To test if X is an integer, we can write `INTEGER_P   (X)'; this
     is as before.

   *   To find its value, we can write `GET_INTEGER (X)', as   before.

   *   To test if X is a vector, we can write:
            `POINTER_P (X) && X->type == vector'
       We must still make sure that X is a pointer to a `struct
     value' before dereferencing it to find its type.

   *   If we know X is a vector, we can write
     `X->value.vector.elts[0]' to refer to its first element, as
     before.

   *   We can write `PAIR_P (X)' to determine if X is a   pair, and
     then write `GET_PAIR (X)->car' to refer to its   car.

   This change in representation reduces our heap size by 15%.  It also
makes it cheaper to decide if a value is a pair, because no memory
references are necessary; it suffices to check the bottom two bits of
the `SCM' value.  This may be significant when traversing lists, a
common activity in a Scheme system.

   Again, most real Scheme systems use a slightly different
implementation; for example, if GET_PAIR subtracts off the low bits of
`x', instead of masking them off, the optimizer will often be able to
combine that subtraction with the addition of the offset of the
structure member we are referencing, making a modified pointer as fast
to use as an unmodified pointer.


File: guile.info,  Node: Guile Is Hairier,  Prev: Cheaper Pairs,  Up: Data Representation in Scheme

Guile Is Hairier
----------------

   We originally started with a very simple typing system -- each object
has a field that indicates its type.  Then, for the sake of efficiency
in both time and space, we moved some of the typing information directly
into the `SCM' value, and left the rest in the `struct value'.  Guile
itself employs a more complex hierarchy, storing finer and finer
gradations of type information in different places, depending on the
object's coarser type.

   In the author's opinion, Guile could be simplified greatly without
significant loss of efficiency, but the simplified system would still be
more complex than what we've presented above.


File: guile.info,  Node: How Guile does it,  Next: Defining New Types (Smobs),  Prev: Data Representation in Scheme,  Up: Data Representation

How Guile does it
=================

   Here we present the specifics of how Guile represents its data.  We
don't go into complete detail; an exhaustive description of Guile's
system would be boring, and we do not wish to encourage people to write
code which depends on its details anyway.  We do, however, present
everything one need know to use Guile's data.

* Menu:

* General Rules::
* Conservative GC::
* Immediates vs Non-immediates::
* Immediate Datatypes::
* Non-immediate Datatypes::
* Signalling Type Errors::
* Unpacking the SCM type::


File: guile.info,  Node: General Rules,  Next: Conservative GC,  Up: How Guile does it

General Rules
-------------

   Any code which operates on Guile datatypes must `#include' the
header file `<libguile.h>'.  This file contains a definition for the
`SCM' typedef (Guile's universal type, as in the examples above), and
definitions and declarations for a host of macros and functions that
operate on `SCM' values.

   All identifiers declared by `<libguile.h>' begin with `scm_' or
`SCM_'.

   The functions described here generally check the types of their
`SCM' arguments, and signal an error if their arguments are of an
inappropriate type.  Macros generally do not, unless that is their
specified purpose.  You must verify their argument types beforehand, as
necessary.

   Macros and functions that return a boolean value have names ending in
`P' or `_p' (for "predicate").  Those that return a negated boolean
value have names starting with `SCM_N'.  For example, `SCM_IMP (X)' is
a predicate which returns non-zero iff X is an immediate value (an
`IM').  `SCM_NCONSP (X)' is a predicate which returns non-zero iff X is
_not_ a pair object (a `CONS').


File: guile.info,  Node: Conservative GC,  Next: Immediates vs Non-immediates,  Prev: General Rules,  Up: How Guile does it

Conservative Garbage Collection
-------------------------------

   Aside from the latent typing, the major source of constraints on a
Scheme implementation's data representation is the garbage collector.
The collector must be able to traverse every live object in the heap, to
determine which objects are not live.

   There are many ways to implement this, but Guile uses an algorithm
called "mark and sweep".  The collector scans the system's global
variables and the local variables on the stack to determine which
objects are immediately accessible by the C code.  It then scans those
objects to find the objects they point to, et cetera.  The collector
sets a "mark bit" on each object it finds, so each object is traversed
only once.  This process is called "tracing".

   When the collector can find no unmarked objects pointed to by marked
objects, it assumes that any objects that are still unmarked will never
be used by the program (since there is no path of dereferences from any
global or local variable that reaches them) and deallocates them.

   In the above paragraphs, we did not specify how the garbage collector
finds the global and local variables; as usual, there are many different
approaches.  Frequently, the programmer must maintain a list of pointers
to all global variables that refer to the heap, and another list
(adjusted upon entry to and exit from each function) of local variables,
for the collector's benefit.

   The list of global variables is usually not too difficult to
maintain, since global variables are relatively rare.  However, an
explicitly maintained list of local variables (in the author's personal
experience) is a nightmare to maintain.  Thus, Guile uses a technique
called "conservative garbage collection", to make the local variable
list unnecessary.

   The trick to conservative collection is to treat the stack as an
ordinary range of memory, and assume that _every_ word on the stack is
a pointer into the heap.  Thus, the collector marks all objects whose
addresses appear anywhere in the stack, without knowing for sure how
that word is meant to be interpreted.

   Obviously, such a system will occasionally retain objects that are
actually garbage, and should be freed.  In practice, this is not a
problem.  The alternative, an explicitly maintained list of local
variable addresses, is effectively much less reliable, due to programmer
error.

   To accommodate this technique, data must be represented so that the
collector can accurately determine whether a given stack word is a
pointer or not.  Guile does this as follows:

   * Every heap object has a two-word header, called a "cell".  Some
     objects, like pairs, fit entirely in a cell's two words; others may
     store pointers to additional memory in either of the words.  For
     example, strings and vectors store their length in the first word,
     and a pointer to their elements in the second.

   * Guile allocates whole arrays of cells at a time, called "heap
     segments".  These segments are always allocated so that the cells
     they contain fall on eight-byte boundaries, or whatever is
     appropriate for the machine's word size.  Guile keeps all cells in
     a heap segment initialized, whether or not they are currently in
     use.

   * Guile maintains a sorted table of heap segments.

   Thus, given any random word W fetched from the stack, Guile's
garbage collector can consult the table to see if W falls within a
known heap segment, and check W's alignment.  If both tests pass, the
collector knows that W is a valid pointer to a cell, intentional or
not, and proceeds to trace the cell.

   Note that heap segments do not contain all the data Guile uses; cells
for objects like vectors and strings contain pointers to other memory
areas.  However, since those pointers are internal, and not shared among
many pieces of code, it is enough for the collector to find the cell,
and then use the cell's type to find more pointers to trace.


File: guile.info,  Node: Immediates vs Non-immediates,  Next: Immediate Datatypes,  Prev: Conservative GC,  Up: How Guile does it

Immediates vs Non-immediates
----------------------------

   Guile classifies Scheme objects into two kinds: those that fit
entirely within an `SCM', and those that require heap storage.

   The former class are called "immediates".  The class of immediates
includes small integers, characters, boolean values, the empty list, the
mysterious end-of-file object, and some others.

   The remaining types are called, not surprisingly, "non-immediates".
They include pairs, procedures, strings, vectors, and all other data
types in Guile.

 - Macro: int SCM_IMP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is an immediate object.

 - Macro: int SCM_NIMP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a non-immediate object.  This is the
     exact complement of `SCM_IMP', above.

   Note that for versions of Guile prior to 1.4 it was necessary to use
the `SCM_NIMP' macro before calling a finer-grained predicate to
determine X's type, such as `SCM_CONSP' or `SCM_VECTORP'.  This is no
longer required: the definitions of all Guile type predicates now
include a call to `SCM_NIMP' where necessary.


File: guile.info,  Node: Immediate Datatypes,  Next: Non-immediate Datatypes,  Prev: Immediates vs Non-immediates,  Up: How Guile does it

Immediate Datatypes
-------------------

   The following datatypes are immediate values; that is, they fit
entirely within an `SCM' value.  The `SCM_IMP' and `SCM_NIMP' macros
will distinguish these from non-immediates; see *Note Immediates vs
Non-immediates:: for an explanation of the distinction.

   Note that the type predicates for immediate values work correctly on
any `SCM' value; you do not need to call `SCM_IMP' first, to establish
that a value is immediate.

* Menu:

* Integer Data::
* Character Data::
* Boolean Data::
* Unique Values::


File: guile.info,  Node: Integer Data,  Next: Character Data,  Up: Immediate Datatypes

Integers
........

   Here are functions for operating on small integers, that fit within
an `SCM'.  Such integers are called "immediate numbers", or "INUMs".
In general, INUMs occupy all but two bits of an `SCM'.

   Bignums and floating-point numbers are non-immediate objects, and
have their own, separate accessors.  The functions here will not work on
them.  This is not as much of a problem as you might think, however,
because the system never constructs bignums that could fit in an INUM,
and never uses floating point values for exact integers.

 - Macro: int SCM_INUMP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a small integer value.

 - Macro: int SCM_NINUMP (SCM X)
     The complement of SCM_INUMP.

 - Macro: int SCM_INUM (SCM X)
     Return the value of X as an ordinary, C integer.  If X is not an
     INUM, the result is undefined.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_MAKINUM (int I)
     Given a C integer I, return its representation as an `SCM'.  This
     function does not check for overflow.


File: guile.info,  Node: Character Data,  Next: Boolean Data,  Prev: Integer Data,  Up: Immediate Datatypes

Characters
..........

   Here are functions for operating on characters.

 - Macro: int SCM_CHARP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a character value.

 - Macro: unsigned int SCM_CHAR (SCM X)
     Return the value of `x' as a C character.  If X is not a Scheme
     character, the result is undefined.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_MAKE_CHAR (int C)
     Given a C character C, return its representation as a Scheme
     character value.


File: guile.info,  Node: Boolean Data,  Next: Unique Values,  Prev: Character Data,  Up: Immediate Datatypes

Booleans
........

   Here are functions and macros for operating on booleans.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_BOOL_T
 - Macro: SCM SCM_BOOL_F
     The Scheme true and false values.

 - Macro: int SCM_NFALSEP (X)
     Convert the Scheme boolean value to a C boolean.  Since every
     object in Scheme except `#f' is true, this amounts to comparing X
     to `#f'; hence the name.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_BOOL_NOT (X)
     Return the boolean inverse of X.  If X is not a Scheme boolean,
     the result is undefined.


File: guile.info,  Node: Unique Values,  Prev: Boolean Data,  Up: Immediate Datatypes

Unique Values
.............

   The immediate values that are neither small integers, characters, nor
booleans are all unique values -- that is, datatypes with only one
instance.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_EOL
     The Scheme empty list object, or "End Of List" object, usually
     written in Scheme as `'()'.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_EOF_VAL
     The Scheme end-of-file value.  It has no standard written
     representation, for obvious reasons.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_UNSPECIFIED
     The value returned by expressions which the Scheme standard says
     return an "unspecified" value.

     This is sort of a weirdly literal way to take things, but the
     standard read-eval-print loop prints nothing when the expression
     returns this value, so it's not a bad idea to return this when you
     can't think of anything else helpful.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_UNDEFINED
     The "undefined" value.  Its most important property is that is not
     equal to any valid Scheme value.  This is put to various internal
     uses by C code interacting with Guile.

     For example, when you write a C function that is callable from
     Scheme and which takes optional arguments, the interpreter passes
     `SCM_UNDEFINED' for any arguments you did not receive.

     We also use this to mark unbound variables.

 - Macro: int SCM_UNBNDP (SCM X)
     Return true if X is `SCM_UNDEFINED'.  Apply this to a symbol's
     value to see if it has a binding as a global variable.


File: guile.info,  Node: Non-immediate Datatypes,  Next: Signalling Type Errors,  Prev: Immediate Datatypes,  Up: How Guile does it

Non-immediate Datatypes
-----------------------

   A non-immediate datatype is one which lives in the heap, either
because it cannot fit entirely within a `SCM' word, or because it
denotes a specific storage location (in the nomenclature of the
Revised^5 Report on Scheme).

   The `SCM_IMP' and `SCM_NIMP' macros will distinguish these from
immediates; see *Note Immediates vs Non-immediates::.

   Given a cell, Guile distinguishes between pairs and other
non-immediate types by storing special "tag" values in a non-pair
cell's car, that cannot appear in normal pairs.  A cell with a non-tag
value in its car is an ordinary pair.  The type of a cell with a tag in
its car depends on the tag; the non-immediate type predicates test this
value.  If a tag value appears elsewhere (in a vector, for example),
the heap may become corrupted.

   Note how the type information for a non-immediate object is split
between the `SCM' word and the cell that the `SCM' word points to.  The
`SCM' word itself only indicates that the object is non-immediate -- in
other words stored in a heap cell.  The tag stored in the first word of
the heap cell indicates more precisely the type of that object.

   The type predicates for non-immediate values work correctly on any
`SCM' value; you do not need to call `SCM_NIMP' first, to establish
that a value is non-immediate.

* Menu:

* Pair Data::
* Vector Data::
* Procedures::
* Closures::
* Subrs::
* Port Data::


File: guile.info,  Node: Pair Data,  Next: Vector Data,  Up: Non-immediate Datatypes

Pairs
.....

   Pairs are the essential building block of list structure in Scheme.
A pair object has two fields, called the "car" and the "cdr".

   It is conventional for a pair's CAR to contain an element of a list,
and the CDR to point to the next pair in the list, or to contain
`SCM_EOL', indicating the end of the list.  Thus, a set of pairs
chained through their CDRs constitutes a singly-linked list.  Scheme
and libguile define many functions which operate on lists constructed
in this fashion, so although lists chained through the CARs of pairs
will work fine too, they may be less convenient to manipulate, and
receive less support from the community.

   Guile implements pairs by mapping the CAR and CDR of a pair directly
into the two words of the cell.

 - Macro: int SCM_CONSP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a Scheme pair object.

 - Macro: int SCM_NCONSP (SCM X)
     The complement of SCM_CONSP.

 - Macro: void SCM_NEWCELL (SCM INTO)
     Allocate a new cell, and set INTO to point to it.  This macro
     expands to a statement, not an expression, and INTO must be an
     lvalue of type SCM.

     This is the most primitive way to allocate a cell; it is quite
     fast.

     The CAR of the cell initially tags it as a "free cell".  If the
     caller intends to use it as an ordinary cons, she must store
     ordinary SCM values in its CAR and CDR.

     If the caller intends to use it as a header for some other type,
     she must store an appropriate magic value in the cell's CAR, to
     mark it as a member of that type, and store whatever value in the
     CDR that type expects.  You should generally not do this, unless
     you are implementing a new datatype, and thoroughly understand the
     code in `<libguile/tags.h>'.

 - Function: SCM scm_cons (SCM CAR, SCM CDR)
     Allocate ("CONStruct") a new pair, with CAR and CDR as its
     contents.

   The macros below perform no type checking.  The results are
undefined if CELL is an immediate.  However, since all non-immediate
Guile objects are constructed from cells, and these macros simply
return the first element of a cell, they actually can be useful on
datatypes other than pairs.  (Of course, it is not very modular to use
them outside of the code which implements that datatype.)

 - Macro: SCM SCM_CAR (SCM CELL)
     Return the CAR, or first field, of CELL.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_CDR (SCM CELL)
     Return the CDR, or second field, of CELL.

 - Macro: void SCM_SETCAR (SCM CELL, SCM X)
     Set the CAR of CELL to X.

 - Macro: void SCM_SETCDR (SCM CELL, SCM X)
     Set the CDR of CELL to X.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_CAAR (SCM CELL)
 - Macro: SCM SCM_CADR (SCM CELL)
 - Macro: SCM SCM_CDAR (SCM CELL) ...
 - Macro: SCM SCM_CDDDDR (SCM CELL)
     Return the CAR of the CAR of CELL, the CAR of the CDR of CELL, et
     cetera.


File: guile.info,  Node: Vector Data,  Next: Procedures,  Prev: Pair Data,  Up: Non-immediate Datatypes

Vectors, Strings, and Symbols
.............................

   Vectors, strings, and symbols have some properties in common.  They
all have a length, and they all have an array of elements.  In the case
of a vector, the elements are `SCM' values; in the case of a string or
symbol, the elements are characters.

   All these types store their length (along with some tagging bits) in
the CAR of their header cell, and store a pointer to the elements in
their CDR.  Thus, the `SCM_CAR' and `SCM_CDR' macros are (somewhat)
meaningful when applied to these datatypes.

 - Macro: int SCM_VECTORP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a vector.

 - Macro: int SCM_STRINGP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a string.

 - Macro: int SCM_SYMBOLP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a symbol.

 - Macro: int SCM_VECTOR_LENGTH (SCM X)
 - Macro: int SCM_STRING_LENGTH (SCM X)
 - Macro: int SCM_SYMBOL_LENGTH (SCM X)
     Return the length of the object X.  The result is undefined if X
     is not a vector, string, or symbol, respectively.

 - Macro: SCM * SCM_VECTOR_BASE (SCM X)
     Return a pointer to the array of elements of the vector X.  The
     result is undefined if X is not a vector.

 - Macro: char * SCM_STRING_CHARS (SCM X)
 - Macro: char * SCM_SYMBOL_CHARS (SCM X)
     Return a pointer to the characters of X.  The result is undefined
     if X is not a symbol or string, respectively.

   There are also a few magic values stuffed into memory before a
symbol's characters, but you don't want to know about those.  What
cruft!


File: guile.info,  Node: Procedures,  Next: Closures,  Prev: Vector Data,  Up: Non-immediate Datatypes

Procedures
..........

   Guile provides two kinds of procedures: "closures", which are the
result of evaluating a `lambda' expression, and "subrs", which are C
functions packaged up as Scheme objects, to make them available to
Scheme programmers.

   (There are actually other sorts of procedures: compiled closures, and
continuations; see the source code for details about them.)

 - Function: SCM scm_procedure_p (SCM X)
     Return `SCM_BOOL_T' iff X is a Scheme procedure object, of any
     sort.  Otherwise, return `SCM_BOOL_F'.


File: guile.info,  Node: Closures,  Next: Subrs,  Prev: Procedures,  Up: Non-immediate Datatypes

Closures
........

   [FIXME: this needs to be further subbed, but texinfo has no
subsubsub]

   A closure is a procedure object, generated as the value of a
`lambda' expression in Scheme.  The representation of a closure is
straightforward -- it contains a pointer to the code of the lambda
expression from which it was created, and a pointer to the environment
it closes over.

   In Guile, each closure also has a property list, allowing the system
to store information about the closure.  I'm not sure what this is used
for at the moment -- the debugger, maybe?

 - Macro: int SCM_CLOSUREP (SCM X)
     Return non-zero iff X is a closure.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_PROCPROPS (SCM X)
     Return the property list of the closure X.  The results are
     undefined if X is not a closure.

 - Macro: void SCM_SETPROCPROPS (SCM X, SCM P)
     Set the property list of the closure X to P.  The results are
     undefined if X is not a closure.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_CODE (SCM X)
     Return the code of the closure X.  The result is undefined if X is
     not a closure.

     This function should probably only be used internally by the
     interpreter, since the representation of the code is intimately
     connected with the interpreter's implementation.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_ENV (SCM X)
     Return the environment enclosed by X.  The result is undefined if
     X is not a closure.

     This function should probably only be used internally by the
     interpreter, since the representation of the environment is
     intimately connected with the interpreter's implementation.


File: guile.info,  Node: Subrs,  Next: Port Data,  Prev: Closures,  Up: Non-immediate Datatypes

Subrs
.....

   [FIXME: this needs to be further subbed, but texinfo has no
subsubsub]

   A subr is a pointer to a C function, packaged up as a Scheme object
to make it callable by Scheme code.  In addition to the function
pointer, the subr also contains a pointer to the name of the function,
and information about the number of arguments accepted by the C
function, for the sake of error checking.

   There is no single type predicate macro that recognizes subrs, as
distinct from other kinds of procedures.  The closest thing is
`scm_procedure_p'; see *Note Procedures::.

 - Macro: char * SCM_SNAME (X)
     Return the name of the subr X.  The result is undefined if X is
     not a subr.

 - Function: SCM scm_c_define_gsubr (char *NAME, int REQ, int OPT, int
          REST, SCM (*FUNCTION)())
     Create a new subr object named NAME, based on the C function
     FUNCTION, make it visible to Scheme the value of as a global
     variable named NAME, and return the subr object.

     The subr object accepts REQ required arguments, OPT optional
     arguments, and a REST argument iff REST is non-zero.  The C
     function FUNCTION should accept `REQ + OPT' arguments, or `REQ +
     OPT + 1' arguments if `rest' is non-zero.

     When a subr object is applied, it must be applied to at least REQ
     arguments, or else Guile signals an error.  FUNCTION receives the
     subr's first REQ arguments as its first REQ arguments.  If there
     are fewer than OPT arguments remaining, then FUNCTION receives the
     value `SCM_UNDEFINED' for any missing optional arguments.  If RST
     is non-zero, then any arguments after the first `REQ + OPT' are
     packaged up as a list as passed as FUNCTION's last argument.

     Note that subrs can actually only accept a predefined set of
     combinations of required, optional, and rest arguments.  For
     example, a subr can take one required argument, or one required
     and one optional argument, but a subr can't take one required and
     two optional arguments.  It's bizarre, but that's the way the
     interpreter was written.  If the arguments to `scm_c_define_gsubr'
     do not fit one of the predefined patterns, then
     `scm_c_define_gsubr' will return a compiled closure object instead
     of a subr object.


File: guile.info,  Node: Port Data,  Prev: Subrs,  Up: Non-immediate Datatypes

Ports
.....

   Haven't written this yet, 'cos I don't understand ports yet.


File: guile.info,  Node: Signalling Type Errors,  Next: Unpacking the SCM type,  Prev: Non-immediate Datatypes,  Up: How Guile does it

Signalling Type Errors
----------------------

   Every function visible at the Scheme level should aggressively check
the types of its arguments, to avoid misinterpreting a value, and
perhaps causing a segmentation fault.  Guile provides some macros to
make this easier.

 - Macro: void SCM_ASSERT (int TEST, SCM OBJ, unsigned int POSITION,
          const char *SUBR)
     If TEST is zero, signal a "wrong type argument" error, attributed
     to the subroutine named SUBR, operating on the value OBJ, which is
     the POSITION'th argument of SUBR.

 - Macro: int SCM_ARG1
 - Macro: int SCM_ARG2
 - Macro: int SCM_ARG3
 - Macro: int SCM_ARG4
 - Macro: int SCM_ARG5
 - Macro: int SCM_ARG6
 - Macro: int SCM_ARG7
     One of the above values can be used for POSITION to indicate the
     number of the argument of SUBR which is being checked.
     Alternatively, a positive integer number can be used, which allows
     to check arguments after the seventh.  However, for parameter
     numbers up to seven it is preferable to use `SCM_ARGN' instead of
     the corresponding raw number, since it will make the code easier to
     understand.

 - Macro: int SCM_ARGn
     Passing a value of zero or `SCM_ARGn' for POSITION allows to leave
     it unspecified which argument's type is incorrect.  Again,
     `SCM_ARGn' should be preferred over a raw zero constant.


File: guile.info,  Node: Unpacking the SCM type,  Prev: Signalling Type Errors,  Up: How Guile does it

Unpacking the SCM Type
----------------------

   The previous sections have explained how `SCM' values can refer to
immediate and non-immediate Scheme objects.  For immediate objects, the
complete object value is stored in the `SCM' word itself, while for
non-immediates, the `SCM' word contains a pointer to a heap cell, and
further information about the object in question is stored in that
cell.  This section describes how the `SCM' type is actually
represented and used at the C level.

   In fact, there are two basic C data types to represent objects in
Guile:

 - Data type: SCM
     `SCM' is the user level abstract C type that is used to represent
     all of Guile's Scheme objects, no matter what the Scheme object
     type is.  No C operation except assignment is guaranteed to work
     with variables of type `SCM', so you should only use macros and
     functions to work with `SCM' values.  Values are converted between
     C data types and the `SCM' type with utility functions and macros.

 - Data type: scm_t_bits
     `scm_t_bits' is an integral data type that is guaranteed to be
     large enough to hold all information that is required to represent
     any Scheme object.  While this data type is mostly used to
     implement Guile's internals, the use of this type is also
     necessary to write certain kinds of extensions to Guile.

* Menu:

* Relationship between SCM and scm_t_bits::
* Immediate objects::
* Non-immediate objects::
* Heap Cell Type Information::
* Accessing Cell Entries::
* Basic Rules for Accessing Cell Entries::


File: guile.info,  Node: Relationship between SCM and scm_t_bits,  Next: Immediate objects,  Up: Unpacking the SCM type

Relationship between `SCM' and `scm_t_bits'
...........................................

   A variable of type `SCM' is guaranteed to hold a valid Scheme
object.  A variable of type `scm_t_bits', on the other hand, may hold a
representation of a `SCM' value as a C integral type, but may also hold
any C value, even if it does not correspond to a valid Scheme object.

   For a variable X of type `SCM', the Scheme object's type information
is stored in a form that is not directly usable.  To be able to work on
the type encoding of the scheme value, the `SCM' variable has to be
transformed into the corresponding representation as a `scm_t_bits'
variable Y by using the `SCM_UNPACK' macro.  Once this has been done,
the type of the scheme object X can be derived from the content of the
bits of the `scm_t_bits' value Y, in the way illustrated by the example
earlier in this chapter (*note Cheaper Pairs::).  Conversely, a valid
bit encoding of a Scheme value as a `scm_t_bits' variable can be
transformed into the corresponding `SCM' value using the `SCM_PACK'
macro.

 - Macro: scm_t_bits SCM_UNPACK (SCM X)
     Transforms the `SCM' value X into its representation as an
     integral type.  Only after applying `SCM_UNPACK' it is possible to
     access the bits and contents of the `SCM' value.

 - Macro: SCM SCM_PACK (scm_t_bits X)
     Takes a valid integral representation of a Scheme object and
     transforms it into its representation as a `SCM' value.


File: guile.info,  Node: Immediate objects,  Next: Non-immediate objects,  Prev: Relationship between SCM and scm_t_bits,  Up: Unpacking the SCM type

Immediate objects
.................

   A Scheme object may either be an immediate, i.e. carrying all
necessary information by itself, or it may contain a reference to a
"cell" with additional information on the heap.  Although in general it
should be irrelevant for user code whether an object is an immediate or
not, within Guile's own code the distinction is sometimes of importance.
Thus, the following low level macro is provided:

 - Macro: int SCM_IMP (SCM X)
     A Scheme object is an immediate if it fulfills the `SCM_IMP'
     predicate, otherwise it holds an encoded reference to a heap cell.
     The result of the predicate is delivered as a C style boolean
     value.  User code and code that extends Guile should normally not
     be required to use this macro.

Summary:
   * Given a Scheme object X of unknown type, check first with `SCM_IMP
     (X)' if it is an immediate object.

   * If so, all of the type and value information can be determined
     from the `scm_t_bits' value that is delivered by `SCM_UNPACK (X)'.


File: guile.info,  Node: Non-immediate objects,  Next: Heap Cell Type Information,  Prev: Immediate objects,  Up: Unpacking the SCM type

Non-immediate objects
.....................

   A Scheme object of type `SCM' that does not fulfill the `SCM_IMP'
predicate holds an encoded reference to a heap cell.  This reference
can be decoded to a C pointer to a heap cell using the `SCM2PTR' macro.
The encoding of a pointer to a heap cell into a `SCM' value is done
using the `PTR2SCM' macro.

 - Macro: (scm_t_cell *) SCM2PTR (SCM X)
     Extract and return the heap cell pointer from a non-immediate `SCM'
     object X.

 - Macro: SCM PTR2SCM (scm_t_cell * X)
     Return a `SCM' value that encodes a reference to the heap cell
     pointer X.

   Note that it is also possible to transform a non-immediate `SCM'
value by using `SCM_UNPACK' into a `scm_t_bits' variable.  However, the
result of `SCM_UNPACK' may not be used as a pointer to a `scm_t_cell':
only `SCM2PTR' is guaranteed to transform a `SCM' object into a valid
pointer to a heap cell.  Also, it is not allowed to apply `PTR2SCM' to
anything that is not a valid pointer to a heap cell.

Summary:
   * Only use `SCM2PTR' on `SCM' values for which `SCM_IMP' is false!

   * Don't use `(scm_t_cell *) SCM_UNPACK (X)'!  Use `SCM2PTR (X)'
     instead!

   * Don't use `PTR2SCM' for anything but a cell pointer!


File: guile.info,  Node: Heap Cell Type Information,  Next: Accessing Cell Entries,  Prev: Non-immediate objects,  Up: Unpacking the SCM type

Heap Cell Type Information
..........................

   Heap cells contain a number of entries, each of which is either a
scheme object of type `SCM' or a raw C value of type `scm_t_bits'.
Which of the cell entries contain Scheme objects and which contain raw C
values is determined by the first entry of the cell, which holds the
cell type information.

 - Macro: scm_t_bits SCM_CELL_TYPE (SCM X)
     For a non-immediate Scheme object X, deliver the content of the
     first entry of the heap cell referenced by X.  This value holds
     the information about the cell type.

 - Macro: void SCM_SET_CELL_TYPE (SCM X, scm_t_bits T)
     For a non-immediate Scheme object X, write the value T into the
     first entry of the heap cell referenced by X.  The value T must
     hold a valid cell type.

