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/*!
    \page signalsandslots.html
    \title Signals & Slots
    \keyword Signals and Slots
    \ingroup qt-basic-concepts
    \brief An overview of Qt's signals and slots inter-object
    communication mechanism.

    Signals and slots are used for communication between objects. The
    signals and slots mechanism is a central feature of Qt and
    probably the part that differs most from the features provided by
    other frameworks. Signals and slots are made possible by Qt's
    \l{The Meta-Object System}{meta-object system}.

    \tableofcontents

    \section1 Introduction

    In GUI programming, when we change one widget, we often want
    another widget to be notified. More generally, we want objects of
    any kind to be able to communicate with one another. For example,
    if a user clicks a \uicontrol{Close} button, we probably want the
    window's \l{QWidget::close()}{close()} function to be called.

    Other toolkits achieve this kind of communication using
    callbacks. A callback is a pointer to a function, so if you want
    a processing function to notify you about some event you pass a
    pointer to another function (the callback) to the processing
    function. The processing function then calls the callback when
    appropriate. While successful frameworks using this method do exist,
    callbacks can be unintuitive and may suffer from problems in ensuring
    the type-correctness of callback arguments.

    \section1 Signals and Slots

    In Qt, we have an alternative to the callback technique: We use
    signals and slots. A signal is emitted when a particular event
    occurs. Qt's widgets have many predefined signals, but we can
    always subclass widgets to add our own signals to them. A slot
    is a function that is called in response to a particular signal.
    Qt's widgets have many pre-defined slots, but it is common
    practice to subclass widgets and add your own slots so that you
    can handle the signals that you are interested in.

    \image abstract-connections.png
    \omit
    \caption An abstract view of some signals and slots connections
    \endomit

    The signals and slots mechanism is type safe: The signature of a
    signal must match the signature of the receiving slot. (In fact a
    slot may have a shorter signature than the signal it receives
    because it can ignore extra arguments.) Since the signatures are
    compatible, the compiler can help us detect type mismatches when
    using the function pointer-based syntax. The string-based SIGNAL
    and SLOT syntax will detect type mismatches at runtime.
    Signals and slots are loosely coupled: A class which emits a
    signal neither knows nor cares which slots receive the signal.
    Qt's signals and slots mechanism ensures that if you connect a
    signal to a slot, the slot will be called with the signal's
    parameters at the right time. Signals and slots can take any
    number of arguments of any type. They are completely type safe.

    All classes that inherit from QObject or one of its subclasses
    (e.g., QWidget) can contain signals and slots. Signals are emitted by
    objects when they change their state in a way that may be interesting
    to other objects. This is all the object does to communicate. It
    does not know or care whether anything is receiving the signals it
    emits. This is true information encapsulation, and ensures that the
    object can be used as a software component.

    Slots can be used for receiving signals, but they are also normal
    member functions. Just as an object does not know if anything receives
    its signals, a slot does not know if it has any signals connected to
    it. This ensures that truly independent components can be created with
    Qt.

    You can connect as many signals as you want to a single slot, and a
    signal can be connected to as many slots as you need. It is even
    possible to connect a signal directly to another signal. (This will
    emit the second signal immediately whenever the first is emitted.)

    Together, signals and slots make up a powerful component programming
    mechanism.


    \section1 Signals

    Signals are emitted by an object when its internal state has changed
    in some way that might be interesting to the object's client or owner.
    Signals are public access functions and can be emitted from anywhere,
    but we recommend to only emit them from the class that defines the
    signal and its subclasses.

    When a signal is emitted, the slots connected to it are usually
    executed immediately, just like a normal function call. When this
    happens, the signals and slots mechanism is totally independent of
    any GUI event loop. Execution of the code following the \c emit
    statement will occur once all slots have returned. The situation is
    slightly different when using \l{Qt::ConnectionType}{queued
    connections}; in such a case, the code following the \c emit keyword
    will continue immediately, and the slots will be executed later.

    If several slots are connected to one signal, the slots will be
    executed one after the other, in the order they have been connected,
    when the signal is emitted.

    Signals are automatically generated by the \l moc and must not be
    implemented in the \c .cpp file. They can never have return types
    (i.e. use \c void).

    A note about arguments: Our experience shows that signals and slots
    are more reusable if they do not use special types. If
    QScrollBar::valueChanged() were to use a special type such as the
    hypothetical QScrollBar::Range, it could only be connected to
    slots designed specifically for QScrollBar. Connecting different
    input widgets together would be impossible.

    \section1 Slots

    A slot is called when a signal connected to it is emitted. Slots are
    normal C++ functions and can be called normally; their only special
    feature is that signals can be connected to them.

    Since slots are normal member functions, they follow the normal C++
    rules when called directly. However, as slots, they can be invoked
    by any component, regardless of its access level, via a signal-slot
    connection. This means that a signal emitted from an instance of an
    arbitrary class can cause a private slot to be invoked in an instance
    of an unrelated class.

    You can also define slots to be virtual, which we have found quite
    useful in practice.

    Compared to callbacks, signals and slots are slightly slower
    because of the increased flexibility they provide, although the
    difference for real applications is insignificant. In general,
    emitting a signal that is connected to some slots, is
    approximately ten times slower than calling the receivers
    directly, with non-virtual function calls. This is the overhead
    required to locate the connection object, to safely iterate over
    all connections (i.e. checking that subsequent receivers have not
    been destroyed during the emission), and to marshall any
    parameters in a generic fashion. While ten non-virtual function
    calls may sound like a lot, it's much less overhead than any \c
    new or \c delete operation, for example. As soon as you perform a
    string, vector or list operation that behind the scene requires
    \c new or \c delete, the signals and slots overhead is only
    responsible for a very small proportion of the complete function
    call costs. The same is true whenever you do a system call in a slot;
    or indirectly call more than ten functions.
    The simplicity and flexibility of the signals and slots mechanism is
    well worth the overhead, which your users won't even notice.

    Note that other libraries that define variables called \c signals
    or \c slots may cause compiler warnings and errors when compiled
    alongside a Qt-based application. To solve this problem, \c
    #undef the offending preprocessor symbol.


    \section1 A Small Example

    A minimal C++ class declaration might read:

    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 0

    A small QObject-based class might read:

    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 1
    \codeline
    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 2
    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 3

    The QObject-based version has the same internal state, and provides
    public methods to access the state, but in addition it has support
    for component programming using signals and slots. This class can
    tell the outside world that its state has changed by emitting a
    signal, \c{valueChanged()}, and it has a slot which other objects
    can send signals to.

    All classes that contain signals or slots must mention
    Q_OBJECT at the top of their declaration. They must also derive
    (directly or indirectly) from QObject.

    Slots are implemented by the application programmer.
    Here is a possible implementation of the \c{Counter::setValue()}
    slot:

    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 0

    The \c{emit} line emits the signal \c valueChanged() from the
    object, with the new value as argument.

    In the following code snippet, we create two \c Counter objects
    and connect the first object's \c valueChanged() signal to the
    second object's \c setValue() slot using QObject::connect():

    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 1
    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 2
    \codeline
    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 3
    \snippet signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 4

    Calling \c{a.setValue(12)} makes \c{a} emit a
    \c{valueChanged(12)} signal, which \c{b} will receive in its
    \c{setValue()} slot, i.e. \c{b.setValue(12)} is called. Then
    \c{b} emits the same \c{valueChanged()} signal, but since no slot
    has been connected to \c{b}'s \c{valueChanged()} signal, the
    signal is ignored.

    Note that the \c{setValue()} function sets the value and emits
    the signal only if \c{value != m_value}. This prevents infinite
    looping in the case of cyclic connections (e.g., if
    \c{b.valueChanged()} were connected to \c{a.setValue()}).

    By default, for every connection you make, a signal is emitted;
    two signals are emitted for duplicate connections. You can break
    all of these connections with a single \l{QObject::disconnect()}{disconnect()} call.
    If you pass the Qt::UniqueConnection \a type, the connection will only
    be made if it is not a duplicate. If there is already a duplicate
    (exact same signal to the exact same slot on the same objects),
    the connection will fail and connect will return \c false.

    This example illustrates that objects can work together without needing to
    know any information about each other. To enable this, the objects only
    need to be connected together, and this can be achieved with some simple
    QObject::connect() function calls, or with \l{User Interface Compiler
    (uic)}{uic}'s \l{Automatic Connections}{automatic connections} feature.


    \section1 A Real Example

    The following is an example of the header of a simple widget class without
    member functions. The purpose is to show how you can utilize signals and
    slots in your own applications.

    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 0
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 1
    \codeline
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 2
    \codeline
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 3
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 4
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 5

    \c LcdNumber inherits QObject, which has most of the signal-slot
    knowledge, via QFrame and QWidget. It is somewhat similar to the
    built-in QLCDNumber widget.

    The Q_OBJECT macro is expanded by the preprocessor to declare
    several member functions that are implemented by the \c{moc}; if
    you get compiler errors along the lines of "undefined reference
    to vtable for \c{LcdNumber}", you have probably forgotten to
    \l{moc}{run the moc} or to include the moc output in the link
    command.

    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 6
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 7
    \codeline
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 8
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 9

    After the class constructor and \c public members, we declare the class
    \c signals. The \c LcdNumber class emits a signal, \c overflow(), when it
    is asked to show an impossible value.

    If you don't care about overflow, or you know that overflow
    cannot occur, you can ignore the \c overflow() signal, i.e. don't
    connect it to any slot.

    If on the other hand you want to call two different error
    functions when the number overflows, simply connect the signal to
    two different slots. Qt will call both (in the order they were connected).

    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 10
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 11
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 12
    \codeline
    \snippet signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 13

    A slot is a receiving function used to get information about
    state changes in other widgets. \c LcdNumber uses it, as the code
    above indicates, to set the displayed number. Since \c{display()}
    is part of the class's interface with the rest of the program,
    the slot is public.

    Several of the example programs connect the
    \l{QScrollBar::valueChanged()}{valueChanged()} signal of a
    QScrollBar to the \c display() slot, so the LCD number
    continuously shows the value of the scroll bar.

    Note that \c display() is overloaded; Qt will select the
    appropriate version when you connect a signal to the slot. With
    callbacks, you'd have to find five different names and keep track
    of the types yourself.

    \sa QLCDNumber, QObject::connect(), {Digital Clock Example},
    {Tetrix Example}

    \section1 Signals And Slots With Default Arguments

    The signatures of signals and slots may contain arguments, and the
    arguments can have default values. Consider QObject::destroyed():

    \code
    void destroyed(QObject* = nullptr);
    \endcode

    When a QObject is deleted, it emits this QObject::destroyed()
    signal. We want to catch this signal, wherever we might have a
    dangling reference to the deleted QObject, so we can clean it up.
    A suitable slot signature might be:

    \code
    void objectDestroyed(QObject* obj = nullptr);
    \endcode

    To connect the signal to the slot, we use QObject::connect().
    There are several ways to connect signal and slots. The first is to use
    function pointers:
    \code
    connect(sender, &QObject::destroyed, this, &MyObject::objectDestroyed);
    \endcode

    There are several advantages to using QObject::connect() with function pointers.
    First, it allows the compiler to check that the signal's arguments are
    compatible with the slot's arguments. Arguments can also be implicitly
    converted by the compiler, if needed.

    You can also connect to functors or C++11 lambdas:

    \code
    connect(sender, &QObject::destroyed, this, [=](){ this->m_objects.remove(sender); });
    \endcode

    In both these cases, we provide \a this as context in the call to connect().
    The context object provides information about in which thread the receiver
    should be executed. This is important, as providing the context ensures
    that the receiver is executed in the context thread.

    The lambda will be disconnected when the sender or context is destroyed.
    You should take care that any objects used inside the functor are still
    alive when the signal is emitted.

    The other way to connect a signal to a slot is to use QObject::connect()
    and the \c{SIGNAL} and \c{SLOT} macros.
    The rule about whether to include arguments or not in the \c{SIGNAL()} and
    \c{SLOT()} macros, if the arguments have default values, is that the
    signature passed to the \c{SIGNAL()} macro must \e not have fewer arguments
    than the signature passed to the \c{SLOT()} macro.

    All of these would work:
    \code
    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed(QObject*)), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed(Qbject*)));
    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed(QObject*)), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed()));
    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed()), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed()));
    \endcode
    But this one won't work:
    \code
    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed()), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed(QObject*)));
    \endcode

    ...because the slot will be expecting a QObject that the signal
    will not send. This connection will report a runtime error.

    Note that signal and slot arguments are not checked by the compiler when
    using this QObject::connect() overload.

    \section1 Advanced Signals and Slots Usage

    For cases where you may require information on the sender of the
    signal, Qt provides the QObject::sender() function, which returns
    a pointer to the object that sent the signal.

    Lambda expressions are a convenient way to pass custom arguments to a slot:

    \code
    connect(action, &QAction::triggered, engine,
            [=]() { engine->processAction(action->text()); });
    \endcode

    \sa {Meta-Object System}, {Qt's Property System}

    \target 3rd Party Signals and Slots
    \section2 Using Qt with 3rd Party Signals and Slots

    It is possible to use Qt with a 3rd party signal/slot mechanism.
    You can even use both mechanisms in the same project. To do that,
    write the following into your CMake project file:

    \snippet code/doc_src_containers.cpp cmake_no_keywords

    In a qmake project (.pro) file, you need to write:

    \snippet code/doc_src_containers.cpp 22

    It tells Qt not to define the moc keywords \c{signals}, \c{slots},
    and \c{emit}, because these names will be used by a 3rd party
    library, e.g. Boost. Then to continue using Qt signals and slots
    with the \c{no_keywords} flag, simply replace all uses of the Qt
    moc keywords in your sources with the corresponding Qt macros
    Q_SIGNALS (or Q_SIGNAL), Q_SLOTS (or Q_SLOT), and Q_EMIT.

    \section2 Signals and slots in Qt-based libraries

    The public API of Qt-based libraries should use the keywords
    \c{Q_SIGNALS} and \c{Q_SLOTS} instead of \c{signals} and
    \c{slots}. Otherwise it is hard to use such a library in a project
    that defines \c{QT_NO_KEYWORDS}.

    To enforce this restriction, the library creator may set the
    preprocessor define \c{QT_NO_SIGNALS_SLOTS_KEYWORDS} when building
    the library.

    This define excludes signals and slots without affecting whether
    other Qt-specific keywords can be used in the library
    implementation.
 */
